IntegratedCircuits

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Look at the die, and you will understand how it works. Then, say: "I C".

"This is how you recycle electronics"


List

note that with identifying dies, you follow them like a maze, and look for bridges across different
sections. in this chip, there is a distinct general flow from the bottom left to the top right.
There are distinct bridges visible on the first section, and also you can see the two near identical
inputs (which in this case are a differential input according to the author). It also helps to colour
sections differently, if they can be identified.

There are no standards for what a given component name means wrt the die. You have to decap them. And you have to know IC design. Another thing to learn. To make it worse, technically, there can even be batch variations from one die to the next (at its root, it is chemistry, which means the source chemicals have to be correct. How many IC designers are chemists?). Endless complexity. The more you look at it, the more complex it gets.

IC Design

As you go smaller you get less voltage but go faster and have higher frequency. Therefore, instead of measuring voltage or current you might measure frequency changes, because high frequency is more accessible than access to voltage or current. Per amp hour 579.

74 Series Logic

Logic Gate Optocouplers

People don't usually talk about these, but in addition to standard optocouplers, there are also logic gate optocouplers. SCRs as well.

ADCs

Making analog to digital converters is as simple as A-D-C.

Types

AoE covers these thoroughly in 13.5.2. A simple write up is in Modern Electronic Test Equipment 2nd Edition, by K. Brindley. He says:

  • Dual Slope - Integrator ramp up, then count clock cycles as it goes down.
  • Sucessive Approximation Converter / SAR - The ADC that calculates multiple times based on the internal DAC or reference voltage, narrowing down the voltage to the correct answer (within the # of bits it is).

AoE disagrees with the definition of the SAR, and also discusses a few other types of ADCs, though ultimately categorizes them into 4 categories (though 1 and 2 appear similar and also 3 and 4 appear similar). Basic principles between them are similar, but I'm sure the devil of complexity is in the details. According to METE, you are either comparing voltages, or counting based on integration. "With a name like Delta Sigma, it has to be complex."

Voltage references at 2.048 volts

Here's one example: LM4040 - https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm4040.pdf It can also run at 4.096 volts. It's used in Nuts and Volts 2020 issue 5 as a (stable) reference voltage for the Nano and SS495A hall effect sensor. It is a zener diode. See also the note in Circuit_Building_Blocks#Simplest_Band_Gap_Reference.

DACs

Two fundamental DACs

  • Resistor String DACs (discrete)
  • R-2R Ladder DACs

The Resistor String type will require (large) amounts of resistors and analog switches. These are practical on a chip (e.g. AD5689, DAC8564). This is 2 to the power of N resistors. The R-2R Ladder type uses quite a bit less, and is practical for circuit board assembly from discrete components. Reference: Practical Electronics June 2025, Page 72. This is 2 x N resistors (N being the bits). There are different architectures of these.

Also consider the technique in the magazine of a complementary (inverted, I think) PWM signal along with a normal signal to speed up the settling time. (Page 73).

AoE covers basically similar material to the magazine, though with less errors and more detail.

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